Optical and Surface Studies of α-Al2O3 Powders

Optical and Surface Studies of ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 Powders X-Ray Diffraction, Optical and surface studies of ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 powders synthesized via single step solution combustion method ABSTRACT ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 powders were synthesized at 500 à ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ °C via solution combustion synthesis (SCS) technique using urea as an organic fuel. The sample was characterized by X- ray diffraction (XRD), Optical spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) without any further thermal treatment. XRD study reveals that sample crystallized directly in the hexagonal ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 phase from combustion reaction. Average crystallite size of 37.6 nm was calculated using Debye-Scherrer’s formula. A band gap of 5.68 eV was estimated using diffuse reflectance spectra. Under various UV excitations (260 nm and 400 nm), the sample exhibits a strong emission peak at 693 nm. For surface investigation X-ray photo electron spectroscopy of sample was carried out. XPS survey scan of ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 reveals that no other impurity phases were present in the as synthesized sample which supports the results obtained from XRD. Further to understand the chemical states of Al and O, core level spectra of Al -2s and O-1s were studied. INTRODUCTION Among all the known crystallographic phases of alumina, ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 is the only stable phase. It represents a ceramic material with a large number of technological importances. This is mainly due to its versatile properties, such as: high melting point, thermal shock resistance, excellent mechanical strength at room temperature and high temperature, large band-gap, hardness and abrasion resistance, chemical inertness [1]. These extra ordinary properties are responsible for ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 to be used in various applications such as spark-plugs, ballistic armours [2], abrasives, bioceramics [3], cutting tools [4], electronic components and substrates [5], thermo luminescent dosimeters [6], refractory materials, composite materials [7]. Moreover the compounds and composites of ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 also have wide range of applications in various industrial areas such as high-density ceramics [8, 9], biocompatible ceramics [10], and thermal barrier coatings with low thermal conductivities [11, 12]. The h igh temperature-resistant of Al2O3 coatings have various applications in space and energy production technologies [13]. Since 1961 polycrystalline transparent alumina (Al2O3) has found various optical applications [14]. Single phase ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 nanopowders are also important component for solid state fabrication of yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) transparent laser ceramics [15, 16]. There are several techniques used for the synthesis of ÃŽ ±-Al2O3. In literature there are reports available for the synthesis of single-phase ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 powders using urea [1, 17–19], carbohydrazide [20] or hydrazine [21] as fuels, without any further heat treatments. Several authors have reported two step method for the synthesis of ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 such as reverse micelle [22], sol–gel processing [23], flame spray pyrolysis [24] which require calcinations at 1000–1100 à ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ °C to obtain completely phase pure ÃŽ ±-Al2O3. In the present paper, we report the optical and surface properties of as synthesized ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 powder by the low temperature solution combustion synthesis (SCS) technique. Urea was used as an organic fuel for combustion because it has proven to be the best fuel for combustion of aluminum nitrate [1, 17]. EXPERIMENTAL ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 powders were synthesized by low temperature solution combustion synthesis (SCS) using urea as a fuel. The starting materials for the synthesis of ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 were high-purity aluminum nitrate nonahydrate [Al (NO3)3.9H2O] and urea (H2NCONH2) from Merck Chemicals, India. The reagents were weighed according to the chemical reaction given in equation (1) in the molar stoichiometric ratio of 2:5. The oxidizer to fuel ratio was calculated using the oxidizing and reducing vacancies of reactants in equation (1). For a complete combustion reaction the ratio of oxidizer () and fuel () should be unity, because at this ratio maximum heat is produced. The weighed reactants were mixed in agate mortar by adding few drops of deionized water at room temperature till the solution transform into a transparent viscous gel. The gel was transferred to a Borosil beaker and then introduced to a preheated muffle furnace around 500 à ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ °C. The gel undergoes rapid dehydration with evolution of large amount of gasses and burns with an incandescent flame yielding voluminous white product. The whole combustion process was completed within 2-3 minutes. The beaker was then taken out and the resultant product was grounded into a fine powder and was characterized without any further treatment. The crystalline structure and particle morphology of the combusted powders were investigated using a standard diffractometer (Bruker D8 Advance) in the ÃŽ ¸ –2ÃŽ ¸ geometry with scanning step of 0.02à ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ ° and Cu KÃŽ ± radiation (ÃŽ »=1.5406 Ã…). Diffused reflectance spectrum was recorded using ISR assembly attached with Shimadzu UV-2600 D ouble beam spectrophotometer in the region 190-1400 nm. The spectral features like photoluminescence excitation and emission (in phosphorescence mode) spectra were measured using a Cary-Eclipse spectrofluorometer (Shimadzu) equipped with a Xenon lamp used as an excitation source. The X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurement was performed using Omicron energy analyzer (EA-125) with Al KÃŽ ± (1486.6 eV) X-ray source. The background vacuum in the analyzer chamber was of the order of 10-10 Torr during the XPS measurement. All these characterization were carried out at room temperature. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 XRD The crystal structure and phase purity of the as synthesized Al2O3 powders were analyzed using the X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique. Fig.1. shows the XRD patterns of as synthesized Al2O3 powders recorded in a wide range of Bragg angle 2ÃŽ ¸ (20 ° ≠¤ 2ÃŽ ¸ ≠¤ 90 °). All the observed diffraction peaks can be indexed with the hexagonal phase of bulk ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 referenced in the JCPD’s file no. 71-1123 with space group R. No other impurity peaks were observed in the as synthesized powder neglecting the presence of any other phase other than ÃŽ ±-Al2O3. These XRD patterns were in good agreement with the earlier published reports by Robert Ianos et al. [1] and Laishram et al. [17] for the ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 phase. The lattice parameter calculated from XRD pattern were (a = b= 4.755 Ã…, c =12.985 Ã…) which were very close when compared with the unit cell of ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 (a = b= 4.761 Ã…, c =12.99 Ã…, JCPDs file No. 71-1123). The crystallite size was calculated using Debye-Scherer formula [25] where D is the crystallite diameter, ÃŽ » is the wavelength of x-ray source used (Cu KÃŽ ± = 0.1506 nm), is the full width at half maxima (FWHM) of an individual peak at 2ÃŽ ¸ (where ÃŽ ¸ is the Bragg angle) and is characteristic of the instrument broadening. Fig.1. XRD pattern of as synthesized ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 powders at 500 à ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ °C along with the stick patterns for the JCPDS file no. 71-1123 Three most intense peaks were selected for the calculation of particle size and calculated particle size for ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 was 37.6 nm. 3.2 Spectral Study Fig. 2 shows the diffuse reflectance and the absorption spectra of ÃŽ ±-Al2O3. Barium sulfate (BaSO4) compound was used as a reference standard during the measurement. In both spectra a sharp band around 220 nm is observed which corresponds that light having this particular wavelength was absorbed. Fig.2. The diffuse reflectance and absorption spectra of the ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 powders. Calculation of bandgap. Kubelka–Munk (K–M) [26] theory was used for the calculation of bandgap of ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 powders using diffused reflectance (DR) spectrum. In a DR spectrum, the ratio of the light scattered from a thick layer of sample and an ideal non-absorbing reference sample is measured as a function of the wavelength ÃŽ », [26, 27]. The relation between the DR of the sample, scattering coefficient (S) and absorption coefficient (K) is given by where is the Kubelka–Munk or remission function. The linear absorption coefficient ÃŽ ± and the band gap of a material is related through the well-known relation known as Tauc relation [28]: 3 where hÃŽ ½ is the photon energy and C1 is a constant of proportionality. When incident light is illuminated at 60à ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ °, the material scatters perfectly in a diffuse manner then absorption coefficient K becomes equal to 2ÃŽ ± i.e. . Considering the K-M scattering coefficient S as constant with respect to wavelength, and using equations (2) and (3), the following expression can be written: 4 Obtaining the value of from Eq. 2 and plotting versus, the value of is obtained by extrapolating the linear fitted regions to Figure 3 shows the square of the optical absorption times the photon energy as a function of photon energy for ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 powders. In the present case (ÃŽ ±-Al2O3), the band gap was estimated around 5.68 eV. Aguilar et al. [29] calculated an optical energy band gap of 5.63 eV for Al2O3 films deposited on quartz substrate. Fig.3. Energy bandgap calculation of ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 using K-M functions. Photoluminescence Fig. 4 (a) shows the photoluminescence excitation (PLE) spectra of ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 recorded at an emission wavelength of 695 nm, the excitation spectra consists of a broad band centered at 400 nm. Fig. 4 (b) shows the PL emission spectra of ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 monitored at excitation wavelengths of 260 nm and 400 nm respectively. An intense peak at 693 nm is observed. Similar results were also observed by Kaplyanskiiet al. [30] and Nagabhushana et al. [31] for ÃŽ ±-Al2O3. Kaplyanskiiet al. [30] suggest that this emission peak may be due to crystal lattice belonging to the ÃŽ ± phase of Al2O3. Fig.4. Photoluminescence spectra of as synthesized ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 (a) excitation recorded at ÃŽ »emm = 695 nm and (b) emission recorded at ÃŽ »ext = 260 nm and 400 nm. 3.3 Surface Studies In material science, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) has proved to be a powerful analytical technique that can be used to study the elemental composition and the oxidation states. Figure 5 shows the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) survey scan of the ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 powders. The XPS survey scan of the ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 indicates that only Al, O and C are present in the sample corresponding to their binding energies. Carbon was the only impurity present in the sample which was expected. The positions of various photoemission peaks are marked in the survey scan corresponding to the elements present in the as synthesized sample. To further understand the chemical states of Al and O ions in ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 powder we have further performed the detailed scan for O-1s and Al-2s core spectra. The value corresponding to C 1s peak (284.6 eV) was used as a reference for spectrum analysis. Fig.5. Survey Scan of as synthesized ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 powder. Figure 6 shows the XPS detailed scan for the O-1s core level. The raw data was fitted with combined Gausssian Lorentzian functions. The fitted peak shows only one prominent peak which is centered at 529.70 eV and is attributed to the Al-O bonding in the ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 structure. Figure 7 shows the narrow scan for the Al 2s core level. Only one peak is observed after fitting which is centered at 118.95 eV. These narrow scan spectra of O-1s and Al-2s shows that all the O2- ions are bonded to Al3+ ions in the sample. Thus the chemical state of Oxygen and Aluminum is -2 and+3 respectively in the lattice. Rotole et al. [32] observed O-1s peak at 530.68 eV and Al-2s peak at 118.93 eV for standard ÃŽ ±-Al2O3. The difference in the binding energies may be due to the highly insulating nature of the sample. Fig. 6 XPS core level spectra of O 1s in ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 powder. Fig. 7 XPS core level spectra of Al 2s in ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 powder. Conclusion In summary, the ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 powders were successfully prepared by low temperature solution combustion method with metal nitrate reactants and urea as organic fuel. The XRD results confirm that hexagonal phase of ÃŽ ±-Al2O3 could be obtained directly by combustion method at 500 à ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ °C without any further treatment. The band gap of sample was calculated using diffused reflectance spectra and it was found estimated 5.68 eV. Under UV excitations, the powders exhibit a strong emission peak around 693 nm. XPS results show that as synthesized powders were free from impurities. The core level spectra of Al-2s and O-1s reveals that chemical state of Al and O is +3 and +2 respectively in ÃŽ ±-Al2O3. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors humbly acknowledged Director, UGC-DAE CSR Indore for providing experimental facility. The authors are thankful to Dr. M. Gupta for XRD measurements. The authors are grateful to Mr. A. Wadikar for helping in XPS measurements. REFRENCES R. Ianos ¸ I. Lazau and C. Pacurariu, J. Mater. Sci. 44, 1016 (2009). A.Y. Badmos and D.G. Ivey, J. Mater. Sci. 36, 4995 (2001). D. Gitknecht, J. Chevalier, V. Garnier and G. Fantozzi, J. Eur. 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Adrienne Rich’s 21 Love Poems Essay

In â€Å"Twenty-One Love Poems† by Adrienne Rich, each poem helps us understand her life. We as the readers get a â€Å"sneak peak† at the struggles she faces due to an almost ‘doomed’ love affair she has with another woman. The settings of her poems take place in Manhattan which she refers to as the â€Å"island of Manhattan† many times. There is a transitioning from beginning to end of this short collection of poems. Rich begins her collection with a jolly almost exuberant tone of passion and romance she shares with her lover. In poem IV she states â€Å"I open the mail, drinking delicious coffee, delicious music, my body still both light and heavy with you† (10-12). The speaker here is having physical contact with her lover, juxtaposed to the later poems where the lover is only a memory. The solitude she finds herself in is seen in poem XVIII: â€Å"Close between grief and anger, a space opens where I am Adrienne alone. And growing colderà ¢â‚¬  (13-14). This is the exact point where we find out her sadness and loss she has experienced. I will focus on this side of the spectrum, Adrienne Rich’s transition into solitude. Poem XVIII starts off with rain in the city, and the speaker is at a red light at Riverside. It can be interpreted that the rain is in correlation with her sadness and/or tears as to finding herself at a stop in her life, which is in correlation with the red light she is currently waiting on. This assertion can be made by the lines that follow: â€Å"the more I live, the more I think/ two people together is a miracle† (3-4). She is clearly being judgmental about relationships in general based on her experiences in love. Two people together don’t necessarily have to be viewed as a miracle like she puts it. Two women however, in her time, had to have a hidden love, completely unknown to the outside world. The end result would be that their love for each other would have to always stay hidden, as to why she writes: â€Å"The story of our lives becomes our lives† (7). She continues by telling her lover that she knows her response already, and that it most likely will sound like something some Victorian poet would say. â€Å"†¦ salt estranging sea† is what she pulls from Matthew Arnold’s â€Å"To Marguerite† which is mostly stating that we are all alone no matter the millions of people around us. Rich ends the poem by stating that she is in a state of â€Å"estrangement.† Estrangement is separation resulting from hostility, but in this case the estrangement can possibly be synonymous for a fresh start. What can be very  hard to understand about the ending of this poem is that although â€Å"a clef of light† is visible, Adrienne feels more alone than ever. Although the start of something new can be both, good and frightening for someone, th e start of this new day for Adrienne makes her feel colder than she ever has felt. Rich continues in poem XIX to show the darker side of the â€Å"island of Manhattan.† The poem starts off with a question â€Å"Can it be growing colder when I begin to touch myself again, adhesion pull away?† (1-2) The tone here is grief and an uprising anger. It is interesting to observe that although the speaker is engaging in masturbation, she still feels the coldness that overcame her in poem XVIII. It is bizarre because someone wouldn’t normally associate the act of masturbation with coldness, unless, this event brings up a memory, a memory which gives her an unhappy feeling. She continues by stating that a naked face turns from looking backwards and is now looking to the past for comfort, she is ready to take on what is in front of her: † the eye of winter, city, anger, poverty and death† (5). This new present she is currently facing maybe too much for her to digest. This is why she contemplates if her life is worth living in the following line. She shifts the poem to address her lover by asking her a question. She asks her if she is speaking in a cold manner if she says love isn’t miraculous. This is a transitioning in her state of mind, new profound wisdom enters her and she shares it with us and her lover. She realizes that a relationship consisting of two women â€Å"is a work† just like any other relationship. Thos who are able to be in a healthy relationship can view their efforts as â€Å"heroic in its ordinariness.† The poem ends by Rich telling her love to â€Å"look at the faces of those who have chosen to be in love, that although it takes a lot of hard work, they are in the end happy. Poem XX starts off very ambiguously, with the speaker stating that the conversation she and her lover were supposed to have keeps on replaying in her head. The Fact that it never happened haunts her till this day. She continues the poem by stating that she can distinguish a woman she once loved, the very woman who holds many secrets that built an immense amount of fear. She has tried to speak to this woman on many occasions but her â€Å"expressive head† is a â€Å"dragging down deeper† into a place where she is  unable to make contact with her. The woman she is trying to speak to the entire time is herself. She comes into a self realization that she misses the woman she used to be. In twenty- one love poems, Adrienne Rich gives us a peek into her changing thoughts about love and life. She uses contradictions to parallel the thinking process all of us have with love. There is a change of mind happening throughout all of the poems and this makes the poems and poet appear more â€Å"human-like.† What I mean is that in everyday life people have contradictions about many things and this is how Adrienne Rich does a great idea in humanizing thoughts. Her life is hard to live and she realizes that and so do we. I feel safe to say that she knows its tough but this is a life she has chosen. We experience her hardships in her life through her poetry and we see her transition into solitude. Works Cited Rich, Adrienne. 21 Love Poems http://www.sabrinaaiellophotography.com/files/Complete_21_Love_Poems_by_Adrienne_Rich.htm

An Overview of the Bardet-Biedl Syndrome

In a case report presented by Uzun, Ar, Canan, Aktas, & Bas (2007), an 11-year-old boy was admitted to a hospital in Turkey due to complaints about â€Å"loss of vision, speech deficit, learning difficulty, poor balance, and ataxic gait†. Results of the physical examination showed that the boy manifested the following special features: facial dysmorphism, visual problems that included nystagmus or rapid, involuntary movement of the eyes from side to side, poor coordination, being overweight, an extra digit on the left foot, mild mental retardation, among other distinctive characteristics.What the authors (Uzun et al. , 2007) had presented was a usual case of a developmental disorder called Bardet-Biedl Syndrome (BBS). The World Health Organization (WHO) developed the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF), which is a news classification system that focuses on the components of health (Stewart & Rosenbaum, 2003). The ICF also emphasizes the re lationship between health condition and contextual factors, as illustrated in Figure 1 using the ICF model.This document aims to explain the Bardet-Biedl Syndrome in terms of the patients’ body structure & functions, activities, participation, and their limitations. General Description Bardet-Biedl syndrome is an autosomal recessive condition or an inheritable disease involving non-dominant chromosomes (Barnet, Reilly, Carr, Ojo, Beales, & Charman, 2002; Beales, 2005; Beales, Elcioglu, Woolf, Parker, & Flinter, 1999; Chan, Ho, But, & Tse, 1999; Hrynchak, 2000; Uzun et al. , 2007). It was first described by George Bardet and Alfred Biedl in 1920 (Chan et al. , 2000).This syndrome has a prevalence rate of 1/160,000. The cardinal features of BBS as seen in numerous case reports include retinal dystrophy, obesity, cognitive deficit, hypogonadism, polydactyly (Hrynchak, 2000), mental retardation, and renal dysfunction (Beales et al. , 1999; Chan et al. , 2000; Uzan et al, 2007). A rguments regarding the accuracy of the cardinal features emerged and consequently prompted Beales et al. (1999) to conduct a study that aimed to clarify and determine the major criteria for proper diagnosis of the syndrome. According to the results (Beals et al., 1999), individuals diagnosed with BBS must have the following cardinal features: (1) Visual disorders. The individual suffers from rod-cone dystrophy, also known as atypical retinitis pigmentosa, which is characterized by â€Å"night blindness†, loss of peripheral or tunnel vision, loss of central vision in childhood and adolescence, and â€Å"severe visual impairment by adulthood† (The Foundation Fighting Blindness [TFFB], 2000). (2) Limb defects. A widespread condition among individuals with BBS is postaxial polydactyly, or having extra accessory digits in the hands or feet (Beales et al., 1999). Some are born with only one extra finger or toe, but in other cases, the condition is â€Å"present in all four limbs† (Beales et al. , 1999). There were also cases that extra digits were only found in both hands or in both feet (Beales et al. , 1999). In the case study mentioned above, the 11-year-old boy had an extra digit on the left foot (Uzun et al. , 2007). (3) Height and weight. In the survey conducted by Beales et al. (1999) among children who developed BBS with an average age of 9 years old, the average height of males was 1.73 m, which was significantly lower than the average height of males in the general population which was 1. 76 m; the average height of females, on the other hand, measured 1. 62m—a number that was not significantly different from the average height of females in the general population that measured 1. 63 m (Beales et al. , 1999). When it comes to weight, Bardet-Biedl syndrome is widely linked to being obese or overweight (Beales et al. , 1999; Beales, 2005). Obesity was considered by a number of researchers as one of the accepted major criteria of B BS (Barnet et al., 2002; Hrynchak, 2005). Uzun et al. (2007) even addressed obesity in his case study as â€Å"one of the most common features of BBS†. (4) Education. Individuals with BBS exhibit learning difficulties (Beales et al. , 1999) which â€Å"can range from mild cognitive disability to mental retardation† (TFFB, 2000). However, Green et al. (as cited in Hrynchak, 2000) questioned this feature and found that â€Å"when appropriate verbal and performance IQ tests were given, only a minority of patients were found to have a cognitive deficit†.(5) Renal tract abnormalities. The kidney is one of the affected body organs when a person is developed to have BBS (Beales et al. , 1999, Chan et al. , 2000, Hrynchak, 2000). Most patients were found to have structural abnormalities (Beales et al. , 1999, Chan et al. , 2000). Kidney failure has been one of the leading causes of death among individuals with the syndrome (Chan et al. , 2000; Uzun et al. , 2007). The s ymptoms mentioned above are considered the major criteria; however, the descriptions of BBS are not limited to these items.Hypogonadism was considered by some researchers as one of the key features (Hrynchak, 2000); it is described as a structural deficiency characterized by Beales et al. (1999) as having small penises buried in adipose tissue. These concrete descriptions of the major criteria or symptoms for proper diagnosis of the Bardet-Biedl syndrome are one thing; behavioural patterns in patients with the syndrome are another. Beales et al. (1999) were able to include brief descriptions of BBS patients. These â€Å"difficult† behaviours include â€Å"emotional immaturity, frequent volatile outbursts, and poor reasoning† (Beales et al., 1999). They also claim boldly that â€Å"all BBS children preferred fix routines† (Beales et al. , 1999). Barnet et al. (2002) extensively studied the behaviour of individuals with BBS and found, apart from the aforementioned description by Beales et al. (1999), that children with BBS felt â€Å"withdrawn†, â€Å"anxious†, or even â€Å"depressed†. One of the main arguments of the article by Barnet et al. (2002) was the existence of a â€Å"behaviour phenotype† or a behaviour gene. One revelation that fuelled his speculations was the emergence of closely similar behaviour patterns of individuals born with BBS.That is simply one way to explain behaviour. On the other hand, we can find links between affect, behaviour, and cognition to explain why they act the way they do. Consider feelings of withdrawal, anxiety, and depression. These are all negative feelings indirectly pointed towards the self. A person with BBS would want to withdraw from the normal population because of possible shame or fear of encountering ridicule due to other people’s inconsiderate and usually unkind remarks. Anxiety might be felt due to a developed fear of being ridiculed.Depression, which is mo st probably the worst thing a child can feel, might have developed due to low self-esteem and self-worth. They would probably make comparisons between people like themselves who have impairments and people who are declared by society to be normal. One of the most notable behaviour patterns observed was traces of obsessive-compulsive behaviour; as with individuals who are diagnosed with autism, which is another developmental disorder linked to cognitive deficit, those with BBS are most comfortable with a â€Å"fixed routine† (Barnet, 2002).Activities & Limitations in Activities It is an observable fact that the features of Bardet-Biedl syndrome entail a lot of limitations in learning and applying knowledge. First, once the visual problems emerge, they interfere with visual learning, which is an important facet of education since most instructional media are visual. Hrynchak (2000), however, claimed â€Å"early identification of the visual disorder and appropriate educational intervention can be of great benefit in people with this condition†. In the study of Beales et al.(1999), half of the patients received education in a â€Å"special school†; some even further pursued their education and earned university degrees. Visual problems also hamper the day-to-day activities of older patients. Hrynchak (2000) presented the case of a 20-year-old white man with the condition who worked as a janitor. He complained about â€Å"decreasing visual acuity†, specifically, â€Å"missing debris while sweeping†. â€Å"He also had reduced ability to see fine print, difficulty seeing the credits on television, mobility problems (especially judging depth), and difficulty adapting to changing illumination conditions† (Hrynchak, 2000).Hrynchak (2000) also mentioned that majority of individuals become â€Å"legally blind† before the age of 30. Obesity also entails a lot of health risks including heart disease (Beales et al. , 1999). Th is affects the amount of emotional and physical stress the individual is capable of doing. Ataxia, which is characterized by poor coordination, was also found in patients with BBS. This affects how people with BBS move properly. It is probable that obesity is prevalent in some cases because of ataxia, which hinders activities that need proper coordination such as sports and other physical exercises.There is also the matter of speech deficit. Beales et al. (1999) pointed out that there is a problem in language use and vocabulary is limited due to learning difficulties. Participation & Limitations in Participation The case presented by Hrynchak (2000) shows the ability of individuals with BBS to function effectively in society as a working individual. However, Beales et al. (1999) described that â€Å"adult patients are often disinhibited and appear to recognise social cues†. This means that they often find it difficult to relate and mingle with other people.Perhaps this is a c onsequence of feelings of depression and anxiety in childhood brought about by possible ridicule and rejection among peers. Fatherhood is a major societal role that the males will not get to play. Due to hypogonadism, males are infertile and are unable to procreate (Beales et al. , 1999). According to Hrynchak (2000), â€Å"there have been no reports of a man with Bardet-Biedl syndrome having fathered children. † Treatment & Outcome It is an unfortunate matter that this genetic disorder has no known holistic treatment according to The Foundation Fighting Blindness (2000).To perhaps decrease the complications of the condition, one must address each symptom separately. For visual problems, an eye specialist should be consulted to see how the vision could be improved or what adjustments should be made by the patient or by the people around him. Hrynchak (2000) suggested the use of â€Å"field expansion devices† or a guide dog. Poor vision might hamper an individualâ€℠¢s ability to learn, hence, the cognitive disabilities. Learning disabilities, on the other hand, can be overcome with early intervention and had not been a hindrance to those who completed university degress.For renal abnormalities or kidney problems, one can approach a nephrologist or â€Å"a physician that specializes in kidney diseases† (TFFB, 2000). Kidney diseases are usually not detected until the patient undergoes radiological testing or x-ray after being diagnosed with BBS (Hrynchak, 2000). Take note that the leading cause of death among BBS patients is renal or kidney failure. Reference Barnet, S. , Reilly, S. , Carr, L. , Ojo, I. , Beales, P. L. , & Charman, T. (2002). Behavioural phenotype of Bardet-Biedl syndrome. Journal of Medical Genetics 39, e76-e76. Beales P. L. (2005).Lifting the lid on Pandora’s box: The Bardet-Biedl syndrome. Current Opinion in Genetics & Development, 15(3), 315-323. Beales, P. L. , Elcioglu, N. , Woolf, A. S. , Parker, D. , & Flin ter, F. A. (1999). New criteria for improved diagnosis of Bardet-Biedl syndrome: Results of a population survey. Journal of Medical Genetics, 36, 437-446. Chan, W. K. Y. , Ho, S. , But, B. , & Tse, W. W. Y. (2000). Renal disease in Bardet-Biedl syndrome. Hong Kong Journal of Paediatrics 5, 34-39. Hrynchak, P. K. (2000). Bardeit-Biedl syndrome. Optometry and Vision Science, 77(5), 236-243. Stewart, D. , & Rosenbaum, P. (2003).The international classification of functioning, disability, and health (ICF): A global model to guide clinical thinking and practice in childhood disability. Keeping Current, 3(3), 1-8. The Foundation Fighting Blindness. (2000, February). Bardet-Biedl syndrome. Retrieved March 12, 2008, from http://www. blindness. org/pdfs/resources/bardetbiedl. pdf Uzun, H. , Ar, K. , Canan, F. , Aktas, A. , & Bak, M. (2007). A case of Bardet-Biedl syndrome. The Internet Journal of Pediatrics and Neonatology 7(1). Retrieved March 11, 2008, from, http://www. ispub. com/ostia/in dex. php? xmlFilePath=journals/ijpn/vol7n1/ biedl. xml

Organizational Planning And Decision Making - 1342 Words

In modern society a bureaucracy is defined as any system or government where important decisions are made by state appointed officials as opposed to elected officials. In the 1930’s, a German sociologist named Max Weber coined the term bureaucracy as an ideal way of organizing governmental agencies relating to civil service. A bureaucracy represents a governmental hierarchy in which a large number of people effectively work together towards a common goal. Weber’s belief on bureaucracies quickly spread to private organizations as an effective way to organize businesses as well. According to Max Weber, the main characteristics of a bureaucracy include six main principles. The first is that a bureaucracy is a formal hierarchy where an†¦show more content†¦Specialists are typically grouped by their specialty, the type of work they do. This may allow for more efficiency and increased results. The mission is also a very important principle of a bureaucracy. Web er described two types of missions; in-focus and up-focus. If the organization’s mission is an in-focus mission, the mission serves the organization and the people within the organization. The focus is on achieving high profits. If the organization’s mission is categorized as up-focus then the organization’s focus is to serve the agency that runs it, such as the board of directors or stock holders. The bureaucracy operates on the belief that all people within the organization are to be treated equally. The organization does not recognize individual differences. Even people outside the organization, such as customers, are to be treated equally. The organization does not recognize individual differences and purposefully remain impersonal. The last of Weber’s principles is that employment in an organization is based on qualifications. Employees are not arbitrarily selected and hired. They must meet technical qualifications that are outlined at each l evel. A bureaucracy is thought to have many positive aspects. Although many think the red tape that bureaucracies create is a negative aspect, it can also be a positive aspect. Red tape refers to the paperwork that is required to complete a task within a bureaucratic organization. By having